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Programming language

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A programming language is an artificial language for expressing <a href="Computer_program" title="Computer program">computer programs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a>

Programming languages typically allow software to be <a href="Software_development" title="Software development">written</a> in a <a href="Human-readable" class="mw-redirect" title="Human-readable">human readable</a> manner.

<a href="Execution_(computing)" title="Execution (computing)">Execution</a> of a program requires an <a href="Programming_language_implementation" title="Programming language implementation">implementation</a>. There are two main approaches for implementing a programming language – <a href="Compiler" title="Compiler">compilation</a>, where programs are compiled ahead-of-time to <a href="Machine_code" title="Machine code">machine code</a>, and <a href="Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">interpretation</a>, where programs are directly executed. In addition to these two extremes, some implementations use hybrid approaches such as <a href="Just-in-time_compilation" title="Just-in-time compilation">just-in-time compilation</a> and <a href="Bytecode" title="Bytecode">bytecode</a> interpreters.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a>

The design of programming languages has been strongly influenced by <a href="Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">computer architecture</a>, with most <a href="Imperative_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperative languages">imperative</a> languages designed around the ubiquitous <a href="Von_Neumann_architecture" title="Von Neumann architecture">von Neumann architecture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta18-3">[3]</a> While early programming languages were closely tied to the <a href="Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">hardware</a>, modern languages often hide hardware details via <a href="Abstraction_(computer_science)" title="Abstraction (computer science)">abstraction</a> in an effort to enable better software with less effort.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related">Related</h2></div>

A programming language differs from a <a href="Natural_language" title="Natural language">natural language</a> in many ways – especially intent. A natural language is intended for communicating between people, while a programming language is intended to allow people to control a computer.

The term <a href="Computer_language" title="Computer language">computer language</a> is sometimes used interchangeably with programming language<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> but some contend they are different concepts. Some contend that programming languages are a subset of computer languages.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Some use computer language to classify a language used in computing that is not considered a programming language. Some regard a programming language as a theoretical construct for programming an <a href="Abstract_machine" title="Abstract machine">abstract machine</a>, and a computer language as the subset thereof that runs on a physical computer, which has finite hardware resources.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a>

<a href="John_C._Reynolds" title="John C. Reynolds">John C. Reynolds</a> emphasizes that a <a href="Formal_specification" title="Formal specification">formal specification</a> language is as much a programming language as is a language intended for execution. He argues that textual and even graphical input formats that affect the behavior of a computer are programming languages, despite the fact they are commonly not Turing-complete, and remarks that ignorance of programming language concepts is the reason for many flaws in input formats.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="History_of_programming_languages" title="History of programming languages">History of programming languages</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_developments">Early developments</h3></div>

The first programmable computers were invented at the end of the 1940s, and with them, the first programming languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023519-8">[8]</a> The earliest computers were programmed in <a href="First-generation_programming_language" title="First-generation programming language">first-generation programming languages</a> (1GLs), <a href="Machine_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine language">machine language</a> (simple instructions that could be directly executed by the processor). This code was very difficult to debug and was not <a href="Portability_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Portability (computing)">portable</a> between different computer systems.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023520–521-9">[9]</a> In order to improve the ease of programming, <a href="Assembly_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Assembly languages">assembly languages</a> (or <a href="Second-generation_programming_language" title="Second-generation programming language">second-generation programming languages</a>—2GLs) were invented, diverging from the machine language to make programs easier to understand for humans, although they did not increase portability.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023521-10">[10]</a>

Initially, hardware resources were scarce and expensive, while <a href="Human_resources" title="Human resources">human resources</a> were cheaper. Therefore, cumbersome languages that were time-consuming to use, but were closer to the hardware for higher efficiency were favored.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023522-11">[11]</a> The introduction of <a href="High-level_programming_language" title="High-level programming language">high-level programming languages</a> (<a href="Third-generation_programming_language" title="Third-generation programming language">third-generation programming languages</a>—3GLs)—revolutionized programming. These languages <a href="Abstraction_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Abstraction (computing)">abstracted</a> away the details of the hardware, instead being designed to express algorithms that could be understood more easily by humans. For example, arithmetic expressions could now be written in symbolic notation and later translated into machine code that the hardware could execute.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023521-10">[10]</a> In 1957, <a href="Fortran" title="Fortran">Fortran</a> (FORmula TRANslation) was invented. Often considered the first <a href="Compiler" title="Compiler">compiled</a> high-level programming language,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023521-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201242-12">[12]</a> Fortran has remained in use into the twenty-first century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023524-13">[13]</a>

Around 1960, the first <a href="Mainframes" class="mw-redirect" title="Mainframes">mainframes</a>—general purpose computers—were developed, although they could only be operated by professionals and the cost was extreme. The data and instructions were input by <a href="Punch_cards" class="mw-redirect" title="Punch cards">punch cards</a>, meaning that no input could be added while the program was running. The languages developed at this time therefore are designed for minimal interaction.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023523–524-15">[15]</a> After the invention of the <a href="Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">microprocessor</a>, computers in the 1970s became dramatically cheaper.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023527-16">[16]</a> New computers also allowed more user interaction, which was supported by newer programming languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023528-17">[17]</a>

<a href="Lisp_(programming_language)" title="Lisp (programming language)">Lisp</a>, implemented in 1958, was the first <a href="Functional_programming" title="Functional programming">functional programming</a> language.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Unlike Fortran, it supported <a href="Recursion" title="Recursion">recursion</a> and <a href="Conditional_expression" class="mw-redirect" title="Conditional expression">conditional expressions</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201247–48-19">[19]</a> and it also introduced <a href="Dynamic_memory_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic memory management">dynamic memory management</a> on a <a href="Heap_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Heap (computer science)">heap</a> and automatic <a href="Garbage_collection_(computer_science)" title="Garbage collection (computer science)">garbage collection</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023526-20">[20]</a> For the next decades, Lisp dominated <a href="Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a> applications.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201250-21">[21]</a> In 1978, another functional language, <a href="ML_(programming_language)" title="ML (programming language)">ML</a>, introduced <a href="Type_inference" title="Type inference">inferred types</a> and polymorphic <a href="Parameter_(computer_programming)" title="Parameter (computer programming)">parameters</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023528-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012701–703-22">[22]</a>

After <a href="ALGOL" title="ALGOL">ALGOL</a> (ALGOrithmic Language) was released in 1958 and 1960,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023524–525-23">[23]</a> it became the standard in computing literature for describing <a href="Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithms</a>. Although its commercial success was limited, most popular imperative languages—including <a href="C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a>, <a href="Pascal_(programming_language)" title="Pascal (programming language)">Pascal</a>, <a href="Ada_(programming_language)" title="Ada (programming language)">Ada</a>, <a href="C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a>, <a href="Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a>, and <a href="C_Sharp_(programming_language)" title="C Sharp (programming language)">C#</a>—are directly or indirectly descended from ALGOL 60.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201256–57-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023524-13">[13]</a> Among its innovations adopted by later programming languages included greater portability and the first use of <a href="Context-free_grammar" title="Context-free grammar">context-free</a>, <a href="Backus%E2%80%93Naur_form" title="Backus–Naur form">BNF</a> grammar.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023525-25">[25]</a> <a href="Simula" title="Simula">Simula</a>, the first language to support <a href="Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">object-oriented programming</a> (including <a href="Subtypes" class="mw-redirect" title="Subtypes">subtypes</a>, <a href="Dynamic_dispatch" title="Dynamic dispatch">dynamic dispatch</a>, and <a href="Inheritance_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Inheritance (computer science)">inheritance</a>), also descends from ALGOL and achieved commercial success.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023526–527-26">[26]</a> C, another ALGOL descendant, has sustained popularity into the twenty-first century. C allows access to lower-level machine operations more than other contemporary languages. Its power and efficiency, generated in part with flexible <a href="Pointer_(computer_programming)" title="Pointer (computer programming)">pointer</a> operations, comes at the cost of making it more difficult to write correct code.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023528-17">[17]</a>

<a href="Prolog" title="Prolog">Prolog</a>, designed in 1972, was the first <a href="Logic_programming" title="Logic programming">logic programming</a> language, communicating with a computer using formal logic notation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023531-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201279-28">[28]</a> With logic programming, the programmer specifies a desired result and allows the <a href="Interpreter_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpreter (computer science)">interpreter</a> to decide how to achieve it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023530-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201279-28">[28]</a>

During the 1980s, the invention of the <a href="Personal_computer" title="Personal computer">personal computer</a> transformed the roles for which programming languages were used.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023532–533-30">[30]</a> New languages introduced in the 1980s included C++, a <a href="Superset" class="mw-redirect" title="Superset">superset</a> of C that can compile C programs but also supports <a href="Class_(computer_programming)" title="Class (computer programming)">classes</a> and <a href="Inheritance_(object-oriented_programming)" title="Inheritance (object-oriented programming)">inheritance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023534-31">[31]</a> <a href="Ada_(programming_language)" title="Ada (programming language)">Ada</a> and other new languages introduced support for <a href="Concurrency_(computer_science)" title="Concurrency (computer science)">concurrency</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023534–535-32">[32]</a> The Japanese government invested heavily into the so-called <a href="Fifth-generation_programming_language" title="Fifth-generation programming language">fifth-generation languages</a> that added support for concurrency to logic programming constructs, but these languages were outperformed by other concurrency-supporting languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023535-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012736-34">[34]</a>

Due to the rapid growth of the <a href="Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> and the <a href="World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a> in the 1990s, new programming languages were introduced to support <a href="Web_pages" class="mw-redirect" title="Web pages">Web pages</a> and <a href="Computer_network" title="Computer network">networking</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023536-35">[35]</a> <a href="Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a>, based on C++ and designed for increased portability across systems and security, enjoyed large-scale success because these features are essential for many Internet applications.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023536–537-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201291–92-37">[37]</a> Another development was that of <a href="Type_system" title="Type system">dynamically typed</a> <a href="Scripting_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Scripting languages">scripting languages</a>—<a href="Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a>, <a href="JavaScript" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a>, <a href="PHP" title="PHP">PHP</a>, and <a href="Ruby_(programming_language)" title="Ruby (programming language)">Ruby</a>—designed to quickly produce small programs that coordinate existing <a href="Application_software" title="Application software">applications</a>. Due to their integration with <a href="HTML" title="HTML">HTML</a>, they have also been used for building web pages hosted on <a href="Server_(computing)" title="Server (computing)">servers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023538–539-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201297–99-39">[39]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2000s_to_present">2000s to present</h3></div>

During the 2000s, there was a slowdown in the development of new programming languages that achieved widespread popularity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023542-40">[40]</a> One innovation was <a href="Service-oriented_programming" title="Service-oriented programming">service-oriented programming</a>, designed to exploit <a href="Distributed_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Distributed systems">distributed systems</a> whose components are connected by a network. Services are similar to objects in object-oriented programming, but run on a separate process.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023474–475,_477,_542-41">[41]</a> <a href="C_Sharp_(programming_language)" title="C Sharp (programming language)">C#</a> and <a href="F_Sharp_(programming_language)" title="F Sharp (programming language)">F#</a> cross-pollinated ideas between imperative and functional programming.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023542–543-42">[42]</a> After 2010, several new languages—<a href="Rust_(programming_language)" title="Rust (programming language)">Rust</a>, <a href="Go_(programming_language)" title="Go (programming language)">Go</a>, <a href="Swift_(programming_language)" title="Swift (programming language)">Swift</a>, <a href="Zig_(programming_language)" title="Zig (programming language)">Zig</a> and <a href="Carbon_(programming_language)" title="Carbon (programming language)">Carbon</a> —competed for the performance-critical software for which C had historically been used.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023544-43">[43]</a> Most of the new programming languages use <a href="Type_system" title="Type system">static typing</a> while a few numbers of new languages use <a href="Type_system" title="Type system">dynamic typing</a> like <a href="Ring_(programming_language)" title="Ring (programming language)">Ring</a> and <a href="Julia_(programming_language)" title="Julia (programming language)">Julia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a>

Some of the new programming languages are classified as <a href="Visual_programming_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual programming languages">visual programming languages</a> like <a href="Scratch_(programming_language)" title="Scratch (programming language)">Scratch</a>, <a href="LabVIEW" title="LabVIEW">LabVIEW</a> and <a href="PWCT" title="PWCT">PWCT</a>. Also, some of these languages mix between textual and visual programming usage like <a href="Ballerina_(programming_language)" title="Ballerina (programming language)">Ballerina</a>.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Also, this trend lead to developing projects that help in developing new VPLs like <a href="Blockly" title="Blockly">Blockly</a> by <a href="Google" title="Google">Google</a>.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> Many game engines like <a href="Unreal_Engine" title="Unreal Engine">Unreal</a> and <a href="Unity_(game_engine)" title="Unity (game engine)">Unity</a> added support for visual scripting too.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2></div>

A language can be defined in terms of <a href="Syntax_(programming_languages)" title="Syntax (programming languages)">syntax</a> (form) and <a href="Semantics_(computer_science)" title="Semantics (computer science)">semantics</a> (meaning), and often is defined via a <a href="Formal_language" title="Formal language">formal language</a> specification.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syntax">Syntax</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Syntax_(programming_languages)" title="Syntax (programming languages)">Syntax (programming languages)</a></div>

A programming language's surface form is known as its <a href="Syntax_(programming_languages)" title="Syntax (programming languages)">syntax</a>. Most programming languages are purely textual; they use sequences of text including words, numbers, and punctuation, much like written natural languages. On the other hand, some programming languages are <a href="Visual_programming_language" title="Visual programming language">graphical</a>, using visual relationships between symbols to specify a program.

The syntax of a language describes the possible combinations of symbols that form a syntactically correct program. The meaning given to a combination of symbols is handled by semantics (either <a href="Formal_semantics_of_programming_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal semantics of programming languages">formal</a> or hard-coded in a <a href="Reference_implementation_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Reference implementation (computing)">reference implementation</a>). Since most languages are textual, this article discusses textual syntax.

The programming language syntax is usually defined using a combination of <a href="Regular_expression" title="Regular expression">regular expressions</a> (for <a href="Lexical_analysis" title="Lexical analysis">lexical</a> structure) and <a href="Backus%E2%80%93Naur_form" title="Backus–Naur form">Backus–Naur form</a> (for <a href="Context-free_grammar" title="Context-free grammar">grammatical</a> structure). Below is a simple grammar, based on <a href="Lisp_(programming_language)" title="Lisp (programming language)">Lisp</a>:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-bnf mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>expression ::= atom | list

atom ::= number | symbol

number ::= [+-]?['0'-'9']+

symbol ::= ['A'-'Z''a'-'z'].*

list ::= '(' expression* ')'

</pre></div>

This grammar specifies the following:

<ul><li>an expression is either an atom or a list;</li>

<li>an atom is either a number or a symbol;</li>

<li>a number is an unbroken sequence of one or more decimal digits, optionally preceded by a plus or minus sign;</li>

<li>a symbol is a letter followed by zero or more of any alphabetical characters (excluding whitespace); and</li>

<li>a list is a matched pair of parentheses, with zero or more expressions inside it.</li></ul>

The following are examples of well-formed token sequences in this grammar: <code>12345</code>, <code>()</code> and <code>(a b c232 (1))</code>.

Not all syntactically correct programs are semantically correct. Many syntactically correct programs are nonetheless ill-formed, per the language's rules; and may (depending on the language specification and the soundness of the implementation) result in an error on translation or execution. In some cases, such programs may exhibit <a href="Undefined_behavior" title="Undefined behavior">undefined behavior</a>. Even when a program is well-defined within a language, it may still have a meaning that is not intended by the person who wrote it.

Using <a href="Natural_language" title="Natural language">natural language</a> as an example, it may not be possible to assign a meaning to a grammatically correct sentence or the sentence may be false:

<ul><li>"<a href="Colorless_green_ideas_sleep_furiously" title="Colorless green ideas sleep furiously">Colorless green ideas sleep furiously</a>." is grammatically well-formed but has no generally accepted meaning.</li>

<li>"John is a married bachelor." is grammatically <a href="Well-formedness" title="Well-formedness">well-formed</a> but expresses a meaning that cannot be true.</li></ul>

The following <a href="C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C language</a> fragment is syntactically correct, but performs operations that are not semantically defined (the operation <code>*p >> 4</code> has no meaning for a value having a complex type and <code>p->im</code> is not defined because the value of <code>p</code> is the <a href="Null_pointer" title="Null pointer">null pointer</a>):

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-c mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>complex *p = NULL;

complex abs_p = sqrt(*p >> 4 + p->im);

</pre></div>

If the <a href="Type_declaration" class="mw-redirect" title="Type declaration">type declaration</a> on the first line were omitted, the program would trigger an error on the undefined variable <code>p</code> during compilation. However, the program would still be syntactically correct since type declarations provide only semantic information.

The grammar needed to specify a programming language can be classified by its position in the <a href="Chomsky_hierarchy" title="Chomsky hierarchy">Chomsky hierarchy</a>. The syntax of most programming languages can be specified using a Type-2 grammar, i.e., they are <a href="Context-free_grammar" title="Context-free grammar">context-free grammars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Some languages, including Perl and Lisp, contain constructs that allow execution during the parsing phase. Languages that have constructs that allow the programmer to alter the behavior of the parser make syntax analysis an <a href="Undecidable_problem" title="Undecidable problem">undecidable problem</a>, and generally blur the distinction between parsing and execution.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> In contrast to <a href="Lisp_macro" class="mw-redirect" title="Lisp macro">Lisp's macro system</a> and Perl's <code>BEGIN</code> blocks, which may contain general computations, C macros are merely string replacements and do not require code execution.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Semantics">Semantics</h3></div>

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</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="font-size: 130%; margin: 6px 0px 6px 0px; background: #ddf;"><a href="Logical_connective" title="Logical connective">Logical connectives</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<mover>

</mover>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \neg A,-A,{\overline {A}},\sim A}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./8eab858e54d8de87e36fc80a991b32e74201a600.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:16.001ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \neg A,-A,{\overline {A}},\sim A}" loading="lazy"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Logical_conjunction" title="Logical conjunction">AND</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:125%;line-height:0.8em;vertical-align:middle;white-space:nowrap;font-family:serif;"> <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A\land B,A\cdot B,AB,A\ \&\ B,A\ \&\&\ B}">

</mstyle>

</mrow>

<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A\land B,A\cdot B,AB,A\ \&\ B,A\ \&\&\ B}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./c041e99940ccd418648ea18d200af37e2b3548d2.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:33.68ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A\land B,A\cdot B,AB,A\ \&\ B,A\ \&\&\ B}" loading="lazy"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Sheffer_stroke" title="Sheffer stroke">NAND</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:125%;line-height:0.8em;vertical-align:middle;white-space:nowrap;font-family:serif;"> <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A{\overline {\land }}B,A\uparrow B,A\mid B,{\overline {A\cdot B}}}">

<mover>

</mover>

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<mover>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A{\overline {\land }}B,A\uparrow B,A\mid B,{\overline {A\cdot B}}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./b05374b45c2316947f052c6a46ca0f1d9381ed0e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:24.98ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A{\overline {\land }}B,A\uparrow B,A\mid B,{\overline {A\cdot B}}}" loading="lazy"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Logical_disjunction" title="Logical disjunction">OR</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:125%;line-height:0.8em;vertical-align:middle;white-space:nowrap;font-family:serif;"> <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A\lor B,A+B,A\mid B,A\parallel B}">

</mstyle>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A\lor B,A+B,A\mid B,A\parallel B}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./a262d8ab1dd1738c2b888661fe847101b624992d.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:26.943ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A\lor B,A+B,A\mid B,A\parallel B}" loading="lazy"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Logical_NOR" title="Logical NOR">NOR</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:125%;line-height:0.8em;vertical-align:middle;white-space:nowrap;font-family:serif;"> <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A{\overline {\lor }}B,A\downarrow B,{\overline {A+B}}}">

<mover>

</mover>

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<mover>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A{\overline {\lor }}B,A\downarrow B,{\overline {A+B}}}</annotation>

</semantics>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A\equiv B,A\Leftrightarrow B,A\leftrightharpoons B}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./73fd8a2bddea3e7553e1905a4b2b8944269d5430.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:22.916ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A\equiv B,A\Leftrightarrow B,A\leftrightharpoons B}" loading="lazy"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Exclusive_or" title="Exclusive or">XOR</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:125%;line-height:0.8em;vertical-align:middle;white-space:nowrap;font-family:serif;"> <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A{\underline {\lor }}B,A\oplus B}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A{\underline {\lor }}B,A\oplus B}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./d48ea5022d9d865ea81c6f954cf73429be684009.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.562ex; margin-bottom: -0.776ex; width:12.441ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A{\underline {\lor }}B,A\oplus B}" loading="lazy"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> └ nonequivalent</td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:125%;line-height:0.8em;vertical-align:middle;white-space:nowrap;font-family:serif;"> <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A\not \equiv B,A\not \Leftrightarrow B,A\nleftrightarrow B}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A\not \equiv B,A\not \Leftrightarrow B,A\nleftrightarrow B}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./e31480781c46a0001e81f596615bc56e20d8aaa6.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:22.917ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A\not \equiv B,A\not \Leftrightarrow B,A\nleftrightarrow B}" loading="lazy"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Material_conditional" title="Material conditional">implies</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:125%;line-height:0.8em;vertical-align:middle;white-space:nowrap;font-family:serif;"> <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A\Rightarrow B,A\supset B,A\rightarrow B}">

</mstyle>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A\Rightarrow B,A\supset B,A\rightarrow B}</annotation>

</semantics>

</math><img src="./da2d4ee4d40286755cb17f11743dcece3224fa90.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:22.916ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A\Rightarrow B,A\supset B,A\rightarrow B}" loading="lazy"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Material_nonimplication" title="Material nonimplication">nonimplication</a> (<a href="NIMPLY_gate" title="NIMPLY gate">NIMPLY</a>)</td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:125%;line-height:0.8em;vertical-align:middle;white-space:nowrap;font-family:serif;"> <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A\not \Rightarrow B,A\not \supset B,A\nrightarrow B}">

</mstyle>

</mrow>

<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A\not \Rightarrow B,A\not \supset B,A\nrightarrow B}</annotation>

</semantics>

</math><img src="./4d66f3ed3dc468f35292dfe91a75d59b3b5d4915.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:22.917ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A\not \Rightarrow B,A\not \supset B,A\nrightarrow B}" loading="lazy"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Converse_(logic)" title="Converse (logic)">converse</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:125%;line-height:0.8em;vertical-align:middle;white-space:nowrap;font-family:serif;"> <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A\Leftarrow B,A\subset B,A\leftarrow B}">

</mstyle>

</mrow>

<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A\Leftarrow B,A\subset B,A\leftarrow B}</annotation>

</semantics>

</math><img src="./128eb93aed65dd2e3aa1a4aaef4171a44f9a6718.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:22.916ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A\Leftarrow B,A\subset B,A\leftarrow B}" loading="lazy"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="Converse_nonimplication" title="Converse nonimplication">converse nonimplication</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:125%;line-height:0.8em;vertical-align:middle;white-space:nowrap;font-family:serif;"> <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A\not \Leftarrow B,A\not \subset B,A\nleftarrow B}">

</mstyle>

</mrow>

<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A\not \Leftarrow B,A\not \subset B,A\nleftarrow B}</annotation>

</semantics>

</math><img src="./651dce7a12fa2331a8c610ee47b32982552a01f4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:22.917ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A\not \Leftarrow B,A\not \subset B,A\nleftarrow B}" loading="lazy"></td></tr></tbody></table></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background: #eef; text-align: center;">

Related concepts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="hlist" style="line-height:1.3em;"><ul><li><a href="Propositional_calculus" class="mw-redirect" title="Propositional calculus">Propositional calculus</a></li><li><a href="First-order_logic" title="First-order logic">Predicate logic</a></li><li><a href="Boolean_algebra" title="Boolean algebra">Boolean algebra</a></li><li><a href="Truth_table" title="Truth table">Truth table</a></li><li><a href="Truth_function" title="Truth function">Truth function</a></li><li><a href="Boolean_function" title="Boolean function">Boolean function</a></li><li><a href="Functional_completeness" title="Functional completeness">Functional completeness</a></li><li><a href="Scope_(logic)" title="Scope (logic)">Scope (logic)</a></li></ul></div></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background: #eef; text-align: center;">

Applications</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="Logic_gate" title="Logic gate">Digital logic</a></li><li><a href="Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">Mathematical logic</a></li><li><a href="Philosophy_of_logic" title="Philosophy of logic">Philosophy of logic</a></li></ul></div></td>

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Category</td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">

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<a href="Semantics#Computer_science" title="Semantics">Semantics</a> refers to the meaning of content that conforms to a language's syntax.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Static_semantics">Static semantics</h4></div>

Static semantics defines restrictions on the structure of valid texts that are hard or impossible to express in standard syntactic formalisms.<a href="#cite_note-Aaby_2004-56">[56]</a> For compiled languages, static semantics essentially include those semantic rules that can be checked at compile time. Examples include checking that every <a href="Identifier" title="Identifier">identifier</a> is declared before it is used (in languages that require such declarations) or that the labels on the arms of a <a href="Case_statement" class="mw-redirect" title="Case statement">case statement</a> are distinct.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Many important restrictions of this type, like checking that identifiers are used in the appropriate context (e.g. not adding an integer to a function name), or that <a href="Subroutine" class="mw-redirect" title="Subroutine">subroutine</a> calls have the appropriate number and type of arguments, can be enforced by defining them as rules in a <a href="Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> called a <a href="Type_system" title="Type system">type system</a>. Other forms of <a href="Static_code_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Static code analysis">static analyses</a> like <a href="Data_flow_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Data flow analysis">data flow analysis</a> may also be part of static semantics. Programming languages such as <a href="Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a> and <a href="C_Sharp_(programming_language)" title="C Sharp (programming language)">C#</a> have <a href="Definite_assignment_analysis" title="Definite assignment analysis">definite assignment analysis</a>, a form of data flow analysis, as part of their respective static semantics.<a href="#cite_note-:1-58">[58]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dynamic_semantics">Dynamic semantics</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Semantics_of_programming_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantics of programming languages">Semantics of programming languages</a></div>

Once data has been specified, the machine must be instructed to perform operations on the data. For example, the semantics may define the <a href="Evaluation_strategy" title="Evaluation strategy">strategy</a> by which expressions are evaluated to values, or the manner in which <a href="Control_flow" title="Control flow">control structures</a> conditionally execute <a href="Statement_(computer_science)" title="Statement (computer science)">statements</a>. The dynamic semantics (also known as execution semantics) of a language defines how and when the various constructs of a language should produce a program behavior. There are many ways of defining execution semantics. Natural language is often used to specify the execution semantics of languages commonly used in practice. A significant amount of academic research goes into <a href="Formal_semantics_of_programming_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal semantics of programming languages">formal semantics of programming languages</a>, which allows execution semantics to be specified in a formal manner. Results from this field of research have seen limited application to programming language design and implementation outside academia.<a href="#cite_note-:1-58">[58]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Features">Features</h2></div>

A language provides features for the <a href="Programmer" title="Programmer">programmer</a> for develop software. Some notable features are described below.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Type_system">Type system</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Data_type" title="Data type">Data type</a>, <a href="Type_system" title="Type system">Type system</a>, and <a href="Type_safety" title="Type safety">Type safety</a></div>

A <a href="Data_type" title="Data type">data type</a> is a set of allowable values and operations that can be performed on these values.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012244-59">[59]</a> Each programming language's <a href="Type_system" title="Type system">type system</a> defines which data types exist, the type of an <a href="Expression_(mathematics)" title="Expression (mathematics)">expression</a>, and how <a href="Type_equivalence" class="mw-redirect" title="Type equivalence">type equivalence</a> and type compatibility function in the language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012245-60">[60]</a>

According to <a href="Type_theory" title="Type theory">type theory</a>, a language is fully typed if the specification of every operation defines types of data to which the operation is applicable.<a href="#cite_note-typing-61">[61]</a> In contrast, an untyped language, such as most <a href="Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">assembly languages</a>, allows any operation to be performed on any data, generally sequences of bits of various lengths.<a href="#cite_note-typing-61">[61]</a> In practice, while few languages are fully typed, most offer a degree of typing.<a href="#cite_note-typing-61">[61]</a>

Because different types (such as <a href="Integer" title="Integer">integers</a> and <a href="Floating_point" class="mw-redirect" title="Floating point">floats</a>) represent values differently, unexpected results will occur if one type is used when another is expected. <a href="Type_checking" class="mw-redirect" title="Type checking">Type checking</a> will flag this error, usually at <a href="Compile_time" title="Compile time">compile time</a> (runtime type checking is more costly).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201215,_408–409-62">[62]</a> With <a href="Strongly-typed_programming_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Strongly-typed programming language">strong typing</a>, <a href="Type_error" class="mw-redirect" title="Type error">type errors</a> can always be detected unless variables are explicitly <a href="Type_conversion" title="Type conversion">cast</a> to a different type. <a href="Weak_typing" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak typing">Weak typing</a> occurs when languages allow implicit casting—for example, to enable operations between variables of different types without the programmer making an explicit type conversion. The more cases in which this <a href="Type_coercion" class="mw-redirect" title="Type coercion">type coercion</a> is allowed, the fewer type errors can be detected.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012303–304-63">[63]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Commonly_supported_types">Commonly supported types</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Primitive_data_type" title="Primitive data type">Primitive data type</a></div>

Early programming languages often supported only built-in, numeric types such as the <a href="Integer" title="Integer">integer</a> (signed and unsigned) and <a href="Floating_point" class="mw-redirect" title="Floating point">floating point</a> (to support operations on <a href="Real_number" title="Real number">real numbers</a> that are not integers). Most programming languages support multiple sizes of floats (often called <a href="Single-precision_floating-point_format" title="Single-precision floating-point format">float</a> and <a href="Double-precision_floating-point_format" title="Double-precision floating-point format">double</a>) and integers depending on the size and precision required by the programmer. Storing an integer in a type that is too small to represent it leads to <a href="Integer_overflow" title="Integer overflow">integer overflow</a>. The most common way of representing negative numbers with signed types is <a href="Twos_complement" class="mw-redirect" title="Twos complement">twos complement</a>, although <a href="Ones_complement" class="mw-redirect" title="Ones complement">ones complement</a> is also used.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012246–247-64">[64]</a> Other common types include <a href="Boolean_data_type" title="Boolean data type">Boolean</a>—which is either true or false—and <a href="Character_(computing)" title="Character (computing)">character</a>—traditionally one <a href="Byte" title="Byte">byte</a>, sufficient to represent all <a href="ASCII" title="ASCII">ASCII</a> characters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012249-65">[65]</a>

<a href="Array_(data_type)" title="Array (data type)">Arrays</a> are a data type whose elements, in many languages, must consist of a single type of fixed length. Other languages define arrays as references to data stored elsewhere and support elements of varying types.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012260-66">[66]</a> Depending on the programming language, sequences of multiple characters, called <a href="String_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="String (computing)">strings</a>, may be supported as arrays of characters or their own <a href="Primitive_type" class="mw-redirect" title="Primitive type">primitive type</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012250-67">[67]</a> Strings may be of fixed or variable length, which enables greater flexibility at the cost of increased storage space and more complexity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012254-68">[68]</a> Other data types that may be supported include <a href="List_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="List (computing)">lists</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012281–282-69">[69]</a> <a href="Associative_arrays" class="mw-redirect" title="Associative arrays">associative (unordered) arrays</a> accessed via keys,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012272–273-70">[70]</a> <a href="Record_(computer_science)" title="Record (computer science)">records</a> in which data is mapped to names in an ordered structure,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012276–277-71">[71]</a> and <a href="Tuple" title="Tuple">tuples</a>—similar to records but without names for data fields.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012280-72">[72]</a> <a href="Pointer_(computer_programming)" title="Pointer (computer programming)">Pointers</a> store memory addresses, typically referencing locations on the <a href="Heap_(programming)" class="mw-redirect" title="Heap (programming)">heap</a> where other data is stored.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012289–290-73">[73]</a>

The simplest <a href="User-defined_type" class="mw-redirect" title="User-defined type">user-defined type</a> is an <a href="Ordinal_data_type" title="Ordinal data type">ordinal type</a>, often called an <a href="Enumeration" title="Enumeration">enumeration</a>, whose values can be mapped onto the set of positive integers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012255-74">[74]</a> Since the mid-1980s, most programming languages also support <a href="Abstract_data_types" class="mw-redirect" title="Abstract data types">abstract data types</a>, in which the representation of the data and operations are <a href="Information_hiding" title="Information hiding">hidden from the user</a>, who can only access an <a href="Interface_(computing)" title="Interface (computing)">interface</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012244–245-75">[75]</a> The benefits of <a href="Data_abstraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Data abstraction">data abstraction</a> can include increased reliability, reduced complexity, less potential for <a href="Name_collision" title="Name collision">name collision</a>, and allowing the underlying <a href="Data_structure" title="Data structure">data structure</a> to be changed without the client needing to alter its code.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012477-76">[76]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Static_and_dynamic_typing">Static and dynamic typing</h4></div>

In <a href="Static_typing" class="mw-redirect" title="Static typing">static typing</a>, all expressions have their types determined before a program executes, typically at compile-time.<a href="#cite_note-typing-61">[61]</a> Most widely used, statically typed programming languages require the types of variables to be specified explicitly. In some languages, types are implicit; one form of this is when the compiler can <a href="Type_inference" title="Type inference">infer</a> types based on context. The downside of <a href="Implicit_typing" class="mw-redirect" title="Implicit typing">implicit typing</a> is the potential for errors to go undetected.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012211-77">[77]</a> Complete type inference has traditionally been associated with functional languages such as <a href="Haskell" title="Haskell">Haskell</a> and <a href="ML_(programming_language)" title="ML (programming language)">ML</a>.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a>

With dynamic typing, the type is not attached to the variable but only the value encoded in it. A single variable can be reused for a value of a different type. Although this provides more flexibility to the programmer, it is at the cost of lower reliability and less ability for the programming language to check for errors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012212–213-79">[79]</a> Some languages allow variables of a <a href="Union_type" title="Union type">union type</a> to which any type of value can be assigned, in an exception to their usual static typing rules.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012284–285-80">[80]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Concurrency">Concurrency</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Concurrent_computing" title="Concurrent computing">Concurrent computing</a></div>

In computing, multiple instructions can be executed simultaneously. Many programming languages support instruction-level and subprogram-level concurrency.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012576-81">[81]</a> By the twenty-first century, additional processing power on computers was increasingly coming from the use of additional processors, which requires programmers to design software that makes use of multiple processors simultaneously to achieve improved performance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012579-82">[82]</a> <a href="Interpreted_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpreted language">Interpreted languages</a> such as <a href="Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a> and <a href="Ruby_(programming_language)" title="Ruby (programming language)">Ruby</a> do not support the concurrent use of multiple processors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012585-83">[83]</a> Other programming languages do support managing data shared between different threads by controlling the order of execution of key instructions via the use of <a href="Semaphore_(programming)" title="Semaphore (programming)">semaphores</a>, controlling access to shared data via <a href="Monitor_(synchronization)" title="Monitor (synchronization)">monitor</a>, or enabling <a href="Message_passing" title="Message passing">message passing</a> between threads.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012585–586-84">[84]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exception_handling">Exception handling</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Exception_handling" title="Exception handling">Exception handling</a></div>

Many programming languages include exception handlers, a section of code triggered by <a href="Runtime_error" class="mw-redirect" title="Runtime error">runtime errors</a> that can deal with them in two main ways:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012630,_634-85">[85]</a>

<ul><li>Termination: shutting down and handing over control to the <a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating system</a>. This option is considered the simplest.</li>

<li>Resumption: resuming the program near where the exception occurred. This can trigger a repeat of the exception, unless the exception handler is able to modify values to prevent the exception from reoccurring.</li></ul>

Some programming languages support dedicating a block of code to run regardless of whether an exception occurs before the code is reached; this is called finalization.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012635-86">[86]</a>

There is a tradeoff between increased ability to handle exceptions and reduced performance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012631-87">[87]</a> For example, even though array index errors are common<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012261-88">[88]</a> C does not check them for performance reasons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012631-87">[87]</a> Although programmers can write code to catch user-defined exceptions, this can clutter a program. Standard libraries in some languages, such as C, use their return values to indicate an exception.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012632-89">[89]</a> Some languages and their compilers have the option of turning on and off error handling capability, either temporarily or permanently.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012631,_635–636-90">[90]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Design_and_implementation">Design and implementation</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Programming_language_design_and_implementation" title="Programming language design and implementation">Programming language design and implementation</a></div>

One of the most important influences on programming language design has been <a href="Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">computer architecture</a>. <a href="Imperative_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperative languages">Imperative languages</a>, the most commonly used type, were designed to perform well on <a href="Von_Neumann_architecture" title="Von Neumann architecture">von Neumann architecture</a>, the most common computer architecture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201218-91">[91]</a> In von Neumann architecture, the <a href="Computer_memory" title="Computer memory">memory</a> stores both data and instructions, while the <a href="CPU" class="mw-redirect" title="CPU">CPU</a> that performs instructions on data is separate, and data must be piped back and forth to the CPU. The central elements in these languages are variables, <a href="Assignment_(computer_science)" title="Assignment (computer science)">assignment</a>, and <a href="Iteration" title="Iteration">iteration</a>, which is more efficient than <a href="Recursion_(computer_science)" title="Recursion (computer science)">recursion</a> on these machines.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201219-92">[92]</a>

Many programming languages have been designed from scratch, altered to meet new needs, and combined with other languages. Many have eventually fallen into disuse. The birth of programming languages in the 1950s was stimulated by the desire to make a universal programming language suitable for all machines and uses, avoiding the need to write code for different computers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENofrePriestleyAlberts201455-93">[93]</a> By the early 1960s, the idea of a universal language was rejected due to the differing requirements of the variety of purposes for which code was written.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENofrePriestleyAlberts201460-94">[94]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tradeoffs">Tradeoffs</h3></div>

Desirable qualities of programming languages include readability, writability, and reliability.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta20128-95">[95]</a> These features can reduce the cost of training programmers in a language, the amount of time needed to write and maintain programs in the language, the cost of compiling the code, and increase runtime performance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201216–17-96">[96]</a>

<ul><li>Although early programming languages often prioritized efficiency over readability, the latter has grown in importance since the 1970s. Having multiple operations to achieve the same result can be detrimental to readability, as is <a href="Operator_overload" class="mw-redirect" title="Operator overload">overloading operators</a>, so that the same operator can have multiple meanings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta20128–9-97">[97]</a> Another feature important to readability is <a href="Orthogonality" title="Orthogonality">orthogonality</a>, limiting the number of constructs that a programmer has to learn.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta20129–10-98">[98]</a> A syntax structure that is easily understood and <a href="Reserved_word" title="Reserved word">special words</a> that are immediately obvious also supports readability.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201212–13-99">[99]</a></li>

<li>Writability is the ease of use for writing code to solve the desired problem. Along with the same features essential for readability,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201213-100">[100]</a> <a href="Abstraction_(computer_science)" title="Abstraction (computer science)">abstraction</a>—interfaces that enable hiding details from the client—and <a href="Expressive_power_(computer_science)" title="Expressive power (computer science)">expressivity</a>—enabling more concise programs—additionally help the programmer write code.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201214–15-101">[101]</a> The earliest programming languages were tied very closely to the underlying hardware of the computer, but over time support for abstraction has increased, allowing programmers express ideas that are more remote from simple translation into underlying hardware instructions. Because programmers are less tied to the complexity of the computer, their programs can do more computing with less effort from the programmer.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Most programming languages come with a <a href="Standard_library" title="Standard library">standard library</a> of commonly used functions.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></li>

<li>Reliability means that a program performs as specified in a wide range of circumstances.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201215-104">[104]</a> <a href="Type_checking" class="mw-redirect" title="Type checking">Type checking</a>, <a href="Exception_handling" title="Exception handling">exception handling</a>, and restricted <a href="Aliasing_(computing)" title="Aliasing (computing)">aliasing</a> (multiple variable names accessing the same region of memory) all can improve a program's reliability.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta20128,_16-105">[105]</a></li></ul>

Programming language design often involves tradeoffs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201218,_23-106">[106]</a> For example, features to improve reliability typically come at the cost of performance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201223-107">[107]</a> Increased expressivity due to a large number of operators makes writing code easier but comes at the cost of readability.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201223-107">[107]</a>

<a href="Natural-language_programming" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural-language programming">Natural-language programming</a> has been proposed as a way to eliminate the need for a specialized language for programming. However, this goal remains distant and its benefits are open to debate. <a href="Edsger_W._Dijkstra" title="Edsger W. Dijkstra">Edsger W. Dijkstra</a> took the position that the use of a formal language is essential to prevent the introduction of meaningless constructs.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> <a href="Alan_Perlis" title="Alan Perlis">Alan Perlis</a> was similarly dismissive of the idea.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Specification">Specification</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Programming_language_specification" title="Programming language specification">Programming language specification</a></div>

The specification of a programming language is an artifact that the language <a href="Programmer" title="Programmer">users</a> and the <a href="Programming_language_implementation" title="Programming language implementation">implementors</a> can use to agree upon whether a piece of <a href="Source_code" title="Source code">source code</a> is a valid <a href="Computer_program" title="Computer program">program</a> in that language, and if so what its behavior shall be.

A programming language specification can take several forms, including the following:

<ul><li>An explicit definition of the syntax, static semantics, and execution semantics of the language. While syntax is commonly specified using a formal grammar, semantic definitions may be written in <a href="Natural_language" title="Natural language">natural language</a> (e.g., as in the <a href="C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C language</a>), or a <a href="Formal_semantics_of_programming_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal semantics of programming languages">formal semantics</a> (e.g., as in <a href="Standard_ML" title="Standard ML">Standard ML</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> and <a href="Scheme_(programming_language)" title="Scheme (programming language)">Scheme</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> specifications).</li>

<li>A description of the behavior of a <a href="Compiler" title="Compiler">translator</a> for the language (e.g., the <a href="C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a> and <a href="Fortran" title="Fortran">Fortran</a> specifications). The syntax and semantics of the language have to be inferred from this description, which may be written in natural or formal language.</li>

<li>A <a href="Reference_implementation" title="Reference implementation">reference or model implementation</a>, sometimes <a href="Meta-circular_evaluator" title="Meta-circular evaluator">written in the language being specified</a> (e.g., <a href="Prolog" title="Prolog">Prolog</a> or <a href="REXX" class="mw-redirect" title="REXX">ANSI REXX</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a>). The syntax and semantics of the language are explicit in the behavior of the reference implementation.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Implementation">Implementation</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Programming_language_implementation" title="Programming language implementation">Programming language implementation</a></div>

An implementation of a programming language is the conversion of a program into <a href="Machine_code" title="Machine code">machine code</a> that can be executed by the hardware. The machine code then can be executed with the help of the <a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201223–24-113">[113]</a> The most common form of interpretation in <a href="Software_release_life_cycle" title="Software release life cycle">production code</a> is by a <a href="Compiler" title="Compiler">compiler</a>, which translates the source code via an intermediate-level language into machine code, known as an <a href="Executable" title="Executable">executable</a>. Once the program is compiled, it will run more quickly than with other implementation methods.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201225–27-114">[114]</a> Some compilers are able to provide further <a href="Optimization" class="mw-redirect" title="Optimization">optimization</a> to reduce memory or computation usage when the executable runs, but increasing compilation time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201227-115">[115]</a>

Another implementation method is to run the program with an <a href="Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">interpreter</a>, which translates each line of software into machine code just before it executes. Although it can make debugging easier, the downside of interpretation is that it runs 10 to 100 times slower than a compiled executable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201228-116">[116]</a> Hybrid interpretation methods provide some of the benefits of compilation and some of the benefits of interpretation via partial compilation. One form this takes is <a href="Just-in-time_compilation" title="Just-in-time compilation">just-in-time compilation</a>, in which the software is compiled ahead of time into an intermediate language, and then into machine code immediately before execution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201229–30-117">[117]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Proprietary_languages">Proprietary languages</h2></div>

Although most of the most commonly used programming languages have fully open specifications and implementations, many programming languages exist only as proprietary programming languages with the implementation available only from a single vendor, which may claim that such a proprietary language is their intellectual property. Proprietary programming languages are commonly <a href="Domain-specific_language" title="Domain-specific language">domain-specific languages</a> or internal <a href="Scripting_language" title="Scripting language">scripting languages</a> for a single product; some proprietary languages are used only internally within a vendor, while others are available to external users.

Some programming languages exist on the border between proprietary and open; for example, <a href="Oracle_Corporation" title="Oracle Corporation">Oracle Corporation</a> asserts proprietary rights to some aspects of the <a href="Java_programming_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Java programming language">Java programming language</a>,<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> and <a href="Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a>'s <a href="C_Sharp_(programming_language)" title="C Sharp (programming language)">C#</a> programming language, which has open implementations of most parts of the system, also has <a href="Common_Language_Runtime" title="Common Language Runtime">Common Language Runtime</a> (CLR) as a closed environment.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a>

Many proprietary languages are widely used, in spite of their proprietary nature; examples include <a href="MATLAB" title="MATLAB">MATLAB</a>, <a href="VBScript" title="VBScript">VBScript</a>, and <a href="Wolfram_Language" title="Wolfram Language">Wolfram Language</a>. Some languages may make the transition from closed to open; for example, <a href="Erlang_(programming_language)" title="Erlang (programming language)">Erlang</a> was originally Ericsson's internal programming language.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a>

<a href="List_of_open-source_programming_languages" title="List of open-source programming languages">Open source programming languages</a> are particularly helpful for <a href="Open_science" title="Open science">open science</a> applications, enhancing the capacity for <a href="Replication_crisis" title="Replication crisis">replication</a> and code sharing.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a>

Thousands of different programming languages have been created, mainly in the computing field.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a>

Individual software projects commonly use five programming languages or more.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a>

Programming languages differ from most other forms of human expression in that they require a greater degree of precision and completeness. When using a natural language to communicate with other people, human authors and speakers can be ambiguous and make small errors, and still expect their intent to be understood. However, figuratively speaking, computers "do exactly what they are told to do", and cannot "understand" what code the programmer intended to write. The combination of the language definition, a program, and the program's inputs must fully specify the external behavior that occurs when the program is executed, within the domain of control of that program. On the other hand, ideas about an algorithm can be communicated to humans without the precision required for execution by using <a href="Pseudocode" title="Pseudocode">pseudocode</a>, which interleaves natural language with code written in a programming language.

A programming language provides a structured mechanism for defining pieces of data, and the operations or transformations that may be carried out automatically on that data. A <a href="Programmer" title="Programmer">programmer</a> uses the <a href="Abstraction_(computer_science)" title="Abstraction (computer science)">abstractions</a> present in the language to represent the concepts involved in a computation. These concepts are represented as a collection of the simplest elements available (called <a href="Language_primitive" title="Language primitive">primitives</a>).<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> <a href="Computer_Programming" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer Programming">Programming</a> is the process by which programmers combine these primitives to compose new programs, or adapt existing ones to new uses or a changing environment.

Programs for a computer might be <a href="Execution_(computing)" title="Execution (computing)">executed</a> in a <a href="Batch_processing" title="Batch processing">batch process</a> without any human interaction, or a user might type <a href="Command_(computing)" title="Command (computing)">commands</a> in an <a href="Session_(computer_science)" title="Session (computer science)">interactive session</a> of an <a href="Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">interpreter</a>. In this case the "commands" are simply programs, whose execution is chained together. When a language can run its commands through an interpreter (such as a <a href="Unix_shell" title="Unix shell">Unix shell</a> or other <a href="Command-line_interface" title="Command-line interface">command-line interface</a>), without compiling, it is called a <a href="Scripting_language" title="Scripting language">scripting language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Measuring_language_usage">Measuring language usage</h3></div>

Determining which is the most widely used programming language is difficult since the definition of usage varies by context. One language may occupy the greater number of programmer hours, a different one has more lines of code, and a third may consume the most CPU time. Some languages are very popular for particular kinds of applications. For example, <a href="COBOL" title="COBOL">COBOL</a> is still strong in the corporate data center, often on large <a href="Mainframe_computer" title="Mainframe computer">mainframes</a>;<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> <a href="Fortran" title="Fortran">Fortran</a> in scientific and engineering applications; <a href="Ada_(programming_language)" title="Ada (programming language)">Ada</a> in aerospace, transportation, military, real-time, and embedded applications; and <a href="C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a> in embedded applications and operating systems. Other languages are regularly used to write many different kinds of applications.

Various methods of measuring language popularity, each subject to a different bias over what is measured, have been proposed:

<ul><li>counting the number of job advertisements that mention the language<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a></li>

<li>the number of books sold that teach or describe the language<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a></li>

<li>estimates of the number of existing lines of code written in the language – which may underestimate languages not often found in public searches<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a></li>

<li>counts of language references (i.e., to the name of the language) found using a web search engine.</li></ul>

Combining and averaging information from various internet sites, stackify.com reported the ten most popular programming languages (in descending order by overall popularity): <a href="Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a>, <a href="C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a>, <a href="C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a>, <a href="Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a>, <a href="C_Sharp_(programming_language)" title="C Sharp (programming language)">C#</a>, <a href="JavaScript" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a>, <a href="Visual_Basic_.NET" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual Basic .NET">VB .NET</a>, <a href="R_(programming_language)" title="R (programming language)">R</a>, <a href="PHP" title="PHP">PHP</a>, and <a href="MATLAB" title="MATLAB">MATLAB</a>.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a>

As of June 2024, the top five programming languages as measured by <a href="TIOBE_index" title="TIOBE index">TIOBE index</a> are <a href="Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a>, <a href="C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a>, <a href="C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a>, <a href="Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a> and <a href="C_Sharp_(programming_language)" title="C Sharp (programming language)">C#</a>. TIOBE provides a list of top 100 programming languages according to popularity and update this list every month.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dialects,_flavors_and_implementations">Dialects, flavors and implementations</h2></div>

A dialect of a programming language or a <a href="Data_exchange_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Data exchange language">data exchange language</a> is a (relatively small) variation or extension of the language that does not change its intrinsic nature. With languages such as <a href="Scheme_(programming_language)" title="Scheme (programming language)">Scheme</a> and <a href="Forth_(programming_language)" title="Forth (programming language)">Forth</a>, standards may be considered insufficient, inadequate, or illegitimate by implementors, so often they will deviate from the standard, making a new <a href="Dialect" title="Dialect">dialect</a>. In other cases, a dialect is created for use in a <a href="Domain-specific_language" title="Domain-specific language">domain-specific language</a>, often a subset. In the <a href="Lisp_(programming_language)" title="Lisp (programming language)">Lisp</a> world, most languages that use basic <a href="S-expression" title="S-expression">S-expression</a> syntax and Lisp-like semantics are considered Lisp dialects, although they vary wildly as do, say, <a href="Racket_(programming_language)" title="Racket (programming language)">Racket</a> and <a href="Clojure" title="Clojure">Clojure</a>. As it is common for one language to have several dialects, it can become quite difficult for an inexperienced programmer to find the right documentation. The <a href="BASIC" title="BASIC">BASIC</a> language has <a href="List_of_BASIC_dialects" title="List of BASIC dialects">many dialects</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classifications">Classifications</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Categorical_list_of_programming_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Categorical list of programming languages">Categorical list of programming languages</a></div>

Programming languages can be described per the following high-level yet sometimes overlapping classifications:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201221-133">[133]</a>

<dl><dt>Imperative</dt></dl>

An <a href="Imperative_programming" title="Imperative programming">imperative programming</a> language supports implementing logic encoded as a sequence of ordered operations. Most popularly used languages are classified as imperative.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201221–22-134">[134]</a>

<dl><dt>Functional</dt></dl>

A <a href="Functional_programming" title="Functional programming">functional programming</a> language supports successively applying functions to the given parameters. Although appreciated by many researchers for their simplicity and elegance, problems with efficiency have prevented them from being widely adopted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201212-135">[135]</a>

<dl><dt>Logic</dt></dl>

A <a href="Logic_programming" title="Logic programming">logic programming</a> language is designed so that the software, rather than the programmer, decides what order in which the instructions are executed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201222-136">[136]</a>

<dl><dt>Object-oriented</dt></dl>

<a href="Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">Object-oriented programming</a> (OOP) is characterized by features such as <a href="Data_abstraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Data abstraction">data abstraction</a>, <a href="Inheritance_(object-oriented_programming)" title="Inheritance (object-oriented programming)">inheritance</a>, and <a href="Dynamic_dispatch" title="Dynamic dispatch">dynamic dispatch</a>. OOP is supported by most popular imperative languages and some functional languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201221–22-134">[134]</a>

<dl><dt>Markup</dt></dl>

Although a <a href="Markup_language" title="Markup language">markup language</a> is not a programming language per se, it might support integration with a programming language.

<dl><dt>Special</dt></dl>

There are special-purpose languages that are not easily compared to other programming languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201222–23-137">[137]</a>

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<ul><li><a href="Comparison_of_programming_languages_(basic_instructions)" title="Comparison of programming languages (basic instructions)">Comparison of programming languages (basic instructions)</a></li>

<li><a href="Comparison_of_programming_languages" title="Comparison of programming languages">Comparison of programming languages</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">Computer programming</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_science" title="Computer science">Computer science</a> and <a href="Outline_of_computer_science" title="Outline of computer science">Outline of computer science</a></li>

<li><a href="Domain-specific_language" title="Domain-specific language">Domain-specific language</a></li>

<li><a href="Domain-specific_modeling" title="Domain-specific modeling">Domain-specific modeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Educational_programming_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Educational programming language">Educational programming language</a></li>

<li><a href="Esoteric_programming_language" title="Esoteric programming language">Esoteric programming language</a></li>

<li><a href="Extensible_programming" title="Extensible programming">Extensible programming</a></li>

<li>Category:Extensible syntax programming languages</li>

<li><a href="Invariant-based_programming" title="Invariant-based programming">Invariant-based programming</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_BASIC_dialects" title="List of BASIC dialects">List of BASIC dialects</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_open-source_programming_languages" title="List of open-source programming languages">List of open-source programming languages</a></li>

<li><a href="Lists_of_programming_languages" title="Lists of programming languages">Lists of programming languages</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_programming_language_researchers" title="List of programming language researchers">List of programming language researchers</a></li>

<li><a href="Programming_languages_used_in_most_popular_websites" title="Programming languages used in most popular websites">Programming languages used in most popular websites</a></li>

<li><a href="Language-oriented_programming" title="Language-oriented programming">Language-oriented programming</a></li>

<li><a href="Logic_programming" title="Logic programming">Logic programming</a></li>

<li><a href="Literate_programming" title="Literate programming">Literate programming</a></li>

<li><a href="Metaprogramming" title="Metaprogramming">Metaprogramming</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ruby_(programming_language)#Metaprogramming" title="Ruby (programming language)">Ruby (programming language) § Metaprogramming</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Modeling_language" title="Modeling language">Modeling language</a></li>

<li><a href="Programming_language_theory" title="Programming language theory">Programming language theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Pseudocode" title="Pseudocode">Pseudocode</a></li>

<li><a href="Rebol#Dialects" title="Rebol">Rebol § Dialects</a></li>

<li><a href="Reflective_programming" title="Reflective programming">Reflective programming</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_programming_language" title="Scientific programming language">Scientific programming language</a></li>

<li><a href="Scripting_language" title="Scripting language">Scripting language</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software engineering</a> and <a href="List_of_software_engineering_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of software engineering topics">List of software engineering topics</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite class="citation cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iso.org/standard/63598.html">Information technology — Vocabulary</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSebesta2023" class="citation book cs1">Sebesta, Robert W. (2023). Concepts of Programming Languages (12th global ed.). Pearson. pp. 46–51. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-292-43682-1</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta18-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta18_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSebesta">Sebesta</a>, p. 18. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSebesta (help)

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<li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> Robert A. Edmunds, The Prentice-Hall standard glossary of computer terminology, Prentice-Hall, 1985, p. 91

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<li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Pascal Lando, Anne Lapujade, Gilles Kassel, and Frédéric Fürst, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://home.mis.u-picardie.fr/~site-ic/site/IMG/pdf/ICSOFT2007_final.pdf">Towards a General Ontology of Computer Programs</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150707093557/http://home.mis.u-picardie.fr/~site-ic/site/IMG/pdf/ICSOFT2007_final.pdf">Archived</a> 7 July 2015 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dblp.uni-trier.de/db/conf/icsoft/icsoft2007-1.html">ICSOFT 2007</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100427063709/http://dblp.uni-trier.de/db/conf/icsoft/icsoft2007-1.html">Archived</a> 27 April 2010 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, pp. 163–170

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<li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> R. Narasimhan, Programming Languages and Computers: A Unified Metatheory, pp. 189—247 in Franz Alt, Morris Rubinoff (eds.) Advances in computers, Volume 8, Academic Press, 1994, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-12-012108-5</bdi>, p.215: "[...] the model [...] for computer languages differs from that [...] for programming languages in only two respects. In a computer language, there are only finitely many names—or registers—which can assume only finitely many values—or states—and these states are not further distinguished in terms of any other attributes. [author's footnote:] This may sound like a truism but its implications are far-reaching. For example, it would imply that any model for programming languages, by fixing certain of its parameters or features, should be reducible in a natural way to a model for computer languages."

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<li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> John C. Reynolds, "Some thoughts on teaching programming and programming languages", <a href="SIGPLAN" title="SIGPLAN">SIGPLAN</a> Notices, Volume 43, Issue 11, November 2008, p.109

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023519-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023519_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGabbrielliMartini2023">Gabbrielli & Martini 2023</a>, p. 519.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023520–521-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023520–521_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGabbrielliMartini2023">Gabbrielli & Martini 2023</a>, pp. 520–521.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023521-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023521_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023521_10-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023521_10-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFGabbrielliMartini2023">Gabbrielli & Martini 2023</a>, p. 521.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023522-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023522_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGabbrielliMartini2023">Gabbrielli & Martini 2023</a>, p. 522.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201242-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201242_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSebesta2012">Sebesta 2012</a>, p. 42.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023524-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023524_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023524_13-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023524_13-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFGabbrielliMartini2023">Gabbrielli & Martini 2023</a>, p. 524.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201242–44-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201242–44_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSebesta2012">Sebesta 2012</a>, pp. 42–44.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023523–524-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023523–524_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGabbrielliMartini2023">Gabbrielli & Martini 2023</a>, pp. 523–524.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023527-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023527_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGabbrielliMartini2023">Gabbrielli & Martini 2023</a>, p. 527.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023528-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023528_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023528_17-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023528_17-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFGabbrielliMartini2023">Gabbrielli & Martini 2023</a>, p. 528.

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<li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://twobithistory.org/2018/10/14/lisp.html">"How Lisp Became God's Own Programming Language"</a>. twobithistory.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240410060444/https://twobithistory.org/2018/10/14/lisp.html">Archived</a> from the original on 10 April 2024. Retrieved 10 April 2024.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201247–48-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201247–48_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSebesta2012">Sebesta 2012</a>, pp. 47–48.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023526-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023526_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGabbrielliMartini2023">Gabbrielli & Martini 2023</a>, p. 526.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201250-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201250_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSebesta2012">Sebesta 2012</a>, p. 50.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta2012701–703-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta2012701–703_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSebesta2012">Sebesta 2012</a>, pp. 701–703.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023524–525-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023524–525_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGabbrielliMartini2023">Gabbrielli & Martini 2023</a>, pp. 524–525.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201256–57-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201256–57_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSebesta2012">Sebesta 2012</a>, pp. 56–57.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023525-25"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023525_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGabbrielliMartini2023">Gabbrielli & Martini 2023</a>, p. 525.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023526–527-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023526–527_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGabbrielliMartini2023">Gabbrielli & Martini 2023</a>, pp. 526–527.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023531-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023531_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGabbrielliMartini2023">Gabbrielli & Martini 2023</a>, p. 531.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201279-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201279_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201279_28-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSebesta2012">Sebesta 2012</a>, p. 79.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023530-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023530_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGabbrielliMartini2023">Gabbrielli & Martini 2023</a>, p. 530.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023532–533-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023532–533_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGabbrielliMartini2023">Gabbrielli & Martini 2023</a>, pp. 532–533.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023534-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGabbrielliMartini2023534_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGabbrielliMartini2023">Gabbrielli & Martini 2023</a>, p. 534.

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201223–24-113"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201223–24_113-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSebesta2012">Sebesta 2012</a>, pp. 23–24.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201225–27-114"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201225–27_114-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSebesta2012">Sebesta 2012</a>, pp. 25–27.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201227-115"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201227_115-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSebesta2012">Sebesta 2012</a>, p. 27.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201228-116"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201228_116-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSebesta2012">Sebesta 2012</a>, p. 28.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201229–30-117"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201229–30_117-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSebesta2012">Sebesta 2012</a>, pp. 29–30.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> See: <a href="Oracle_America%2C_Inc._v._Google%2C_Inc." class="mw-redirect" title="Oracle America, Inc. v. Google, Inc.">Oracle America, Inc. v. Google, Inc.</a>

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<li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.computerscience.org/resources/computer-programming-languages/">"Guide to Programming Languages | ComputerScience.org"</a>. ComputerScience.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180513223729/https://www.computerscience.org/resources/computer-programming-languages/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 May 2018. Retrieved 13 May 2018.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ibm.com/developerworks/library/os-erlang1/index.html">"The basics"</a>. ibm.com. 10 May 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180514064903/https://www.ibm.com/developerworks/library/os-erlang1/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 14 May 2018. Retrieved 13 May 2018.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAbdelazizHansonGaberLee2023" class="citation journal cs1">Abdelaziz, Abdullah I.; Hanson, Kent A.; Gaber, Charles E.; Lee, Todd A. (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fpds.5728">"Optimizing large real-world data analysis with parquet files in R: A step-by-step tutorial"</a>. Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety. 33 (3): e5728. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fpds.5728">10.1002/pds.5728</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37984998">37984998</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110220044217/http://hopl.murdoch.edu.au/">"HOPL: an interactive Roster of Programming Languages"</a>. Australia: <a href="Murdoch_University" title="Murdoch University">Murdoch University</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hopl.murdoch.edu.au/">the original</a> on 20 February 2011. Retrieved 1 June 2009. <q>This site lists 8512 languages.</q></cite>

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<li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMayerBauer2015" class="citation conference cs1">Mayer, Philip; Bauer, Alexander (2015). "An empirical analysis of the utilization of multiple programming languages in open source projects". Proceedings of the 19th International Conference on Evaluation and Assessment in Software Engineering. Proceedings of the 19th International Conference on Evaluation and Assessment in Software Engineering – EASE '15. New York, NY, US: ACM. pp. 4:1–4:10. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F2745802.2745805">10.1145/2745802.2745805</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4503-3350-4</bdi>. <q>Results: We found (a) a mean number of 5 languages per project with a clearly dominant main general-purpose language and 5 often-used DSL types, (b) a significant influence of the size, number of commits, and the main language on the number of languages as well as no significant influence of age and number of contributors, and (c) three language ecosystems grouped around XML, Shell/Make, and HTML/CSS. Conclusions: Multi-language programming seems to be common in open-source projects and is a factor that must be dealt with in tooling and when assessing the development and maintenance of such software systems.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAbelson,_Sussman,_and_Sussman" class="citation web cs1">Abelson, Sussman, and Sussman. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090226050622/http://mitpress.mit.edu/sicp/full-text/book/book-Z-H-10.html">"Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mitpress.mit.edu/sicp/full-text/book/book-Z-H-10.html">the original</a> on 26 February 2009. Retrieved 3 March 2009.</cite><code class="cs1-code">{{cite web}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

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<li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFEd_Airey2012" class="citation web cs1">Ed Airey (3 May 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.developer.com/lang/other/7-myths-of-cobol-debunked.html">"7 Myths of COBOL Debunked"</a>. developer.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131019171802/http://www.developer.com/lang/other/7-myths-of-cobol-debunked.html">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2013. Retrieved 19 October 2013.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFNicholas_Enticknap" class="citation web cs1">Nicholas Enticknap. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.computerweekly.com/Articles/2007/09/11/226631/sslcomputer-weekly-it-salary-survey-finance-boom-drives-it-job.htm">"SSL/Computer Weekly IT salary survey: finance boom drives IT job growth"</a>. Computer Weekly. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111026035734/http://www.computerweekly.com/Articles/2007/09/11/226631/SSLComputer-Weekly-IT-salary-survey-finance-boom-drives-IT-job.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 26 October 2011. Retrieved 14 June 2013.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080517023127/http://radar.oreilly.com/archives/2006/08/programming_language_trends_1.html">"Counting programming languages by book sales"</a>. Radar.oreilly.com. 2 August 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://radar.oreilly.com/archives/2006/08/programming_language_trends_1.html">the original</a> on 17 May 2008.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> Bieman, J.M.; Murdock, V., Finding code on the World Wide Web: a preliminary investigation, Proceedings First IEEE International Workshop on Source Code Analysis and Manipulation, 2001

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<li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://stackify.com/popular-programming-languages-2018/">"Most Popular and Influential Programming Languages of 2018"</a>. stackify.com. 18 December 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180830004924/https://stackify.com/popular-programming-languages-2018/">Archived</a> from the original on 30 August 2018. Retrieved 29 August 2018.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tiobe.com/tiobe-index/">"TIOBE Index"</a>. Retrieved 24 June 2024.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201221-133"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201221_133-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSebesta2012">Sebesta 2012</a>, p. 21.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201221–22-134">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201221–22_134-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201221–22_134-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSebesta2012">Sebesta 2012</a>, pp. 21–22.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201212-135"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201212_135-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSebesta2012">Sebesta 2012</a>, p. 12.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201222-136"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201222_136-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSebesta2012">Sebesta 2012</a>, p. 22.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESebesta201222–23-137"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESebesta201222–23_137-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSebesta2012">Sebesta 2012</a>, pp. 22–23.

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="History_of_programming_languages#Further_reading" title="History of programming languages">History of programming languages § Further reading</a></div>

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</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em">

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFAbelsonSussman1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Harold_Abelson" class="mw-redirect" title="Harold Abelson">Abelson, Harold</a>; <a href="Gerald_Jay_Sussman" title="Gerald Jay Sussman">Sussman, Gerald Jay</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180309173822/https://mitpress.mit.edu/sicp/full-text/book/book-Z-H-4.html">Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs</a> (2nd ed.). MIT Press. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mitpress.mit.edu/sicp/full-text/book/book-Z-H-4.html">the original</a> on 9 March 2018.</cite></li>

<li><a href="Raphael_Finkel" title="Raphael Finkel">Raphael Finkel</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141022141742/http://www.nondot.org/sabre/Mirrored/AdvProgLangDesign/">Advanced Programming Language Design</a>, Addison Wesley 1995.</li>

<li><a href="Daniel_P._Friedman" title="Daniel P. Friedman">Daniel P. Friedman</a>, <a href="Mitchell_Wand" title="Mitchell Wand">Mitchell Wand</a>, Christopher T. Haynes: <a href="Essentials_of_Programming_Languages" title="Essentials of Programming Languages">Essentials of Programming Languages</a>, The MIT Press 2001.</li>

<li><a href="David_Gelernter" title="David Gelernter">David Gelernter</a>, Suresh Jagannathan: Programming Linguistics, <a href="The_MIT_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="The MIT Press">The MIT Press</a> 1990.</li>

<li><a href="Ellis_Horowitz" title="Ellis Horowitz">Ellis Horowitz</a> (ed.): Programming Languages, a Grand Tour (3rd ed.), 1987.</li>

<li>Ellis Horowitz: Fundamentals of Programming Languages, 1989.</li>

<li><a href="Shriram_Krishnamurthi" title="Shriram Krishnamurthi">Shriram Krishnamurthi</a>: <a href="Programming_Languages%3A_Application_and_Interpretation" title="Programming Languages: Application and Interpretation">Programming Languages: Application and Interpretation</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.brown.edu/~sk/Publications/Books/ProgLangs/">online publication</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430210417/http://www.cs.brown.edu/~sk/Publications/Books/ProgLangs/">Archived</a> 30 April 2021 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGabbrielliMartini2023" class="citation book cs1">Gabbrielli, Maurizio; Martini, Simone (2023). Programming Languages: Principles and Paradigms (2nd ed.). Springer. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-031-34144-1</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li>Bruce J. MacLennan: Principles of Programming Languages: Design, Evaluation, and Implementation, <a href="Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a> 1999.</li>

<li><a href="John_C._Mitchell" title="John C. Mitchell">John C. Mitchell</a>: Concepts in Programming Languages, <a href="Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a> 2002.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFNofrePriestleyAlberts2014" class="citation journal cs1">Nofre, David; Priestley, Mark; Alberts, Gerard (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24468397">"When Technology Became Language: The Origins of the Linguistic Conception of Computer Programming, 1950–1960"</a>. Technology and Culture. 55 (1): 40–75. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Ftech.2014.0031">10.1353/tech.2014.0031</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0040-165X">0040-165X</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24468397">24468397</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24988794">24988794</a>.</cite></li>

<li><a href="Benjamin_C._Pierce" title="Benjamin C. Pierce">Benjamin C. Pierce</a>: <a href="Types_and_Programming_Languages" title="Types and Programming Languages">Types and Programming Languages</a>, The MIT Press 2002.</li>

<li>Terrence W. Pratt and <a href="Marvin_Victor_Zelkowitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Marvin Victor Zelkowitz">Marvin Victor Zelkowitz</a>: Programming Languages: Design and Implementation (4th ed.), Prentice Hall 2000.</li>

<li><a href="Peter_H._Salus" title="Peter H. Salus">Peter H. Salus</a>. Handbook of Programming Languages (4 vols.). Macmillan 1998.</li>

<li><a href="Ravi_Sethi" title="Ravi Sethi">Ravi Sethi</a>: Programming Languages: Concepts and Constructs, 2nd ed., <a href="Addison-Wesley" title="Addison-Wesley">Addison-Wesley</a> 1996.</li>

<li><a href="Michael_L._Scott" title="Michael L. Scott">Michael L. Scott</a> and Jonathan Aldrich: Programming Language Pragmatics, 5th ed., <a href="Morgan_Kaufmann_Publishers" title="Morgan Kaufmann Publishers">Morgan Kaufmann Publishers</a> 2025.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSebesta2012" class="citation book cs1">Sebesta, Robert W. (2012). Concepts of Programming Languages (10 ed.). Addison-Wesley. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-13-139531-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li>Franklyn Turbak and David Gifford with Mark Sheldon: Design Concepts in Programming Languages, The MIT Press 2009.</li>

<li>Peter Van Roy and Seif Haridi. <a href="Concepts%2C_Techniques%2C_and_Models_of_Computer_Programming" title="Concepts, Techniques, and Models of Computer Programming">Concepts, Techniques, and Models of Computer Programming</a>, The MIT Press 2004.</li>

<li><a href="David_A._Watt" class="mw-redirect" title="David A. Watt">David A. Watt</a>. Programming Language Concepts and Paradigms. Prentice Hall 1990.</li>

<li>David A. Watt and Muffy Thomas. Programming Language Syntax and Semantics. Prentice Hall 1991.</li>

<li>David A. Watt. Programming Language Processors. Prentice Hall 1993.</li>

<li>David A. Watt. Programming Language Design Concepts. John Wiley & Sons 2004.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWilson2001" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, Leslie B. (2001). Comparative Programming Languages, Third Edition. Addison-Wesley. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-201-71012-9</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

</div>

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<ul><li><a href="Printed_circuit_board" title="Printed circuit board">Printed circuit board</a></li>

<li><a href="Peripheral" title="Peripheral">Peripheral</a></li>

<li><a href="Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">Integrated circuit</a></li>

<li><a href="Very-large-scale_integration" title="Very-large-scale integration">Very-large-scale integration</a></li>

<li><a href="System_on_a_chip" title="System on a chip">System on a chip</a> (SoC)</li>

<li><a href="Green_computing" title="Green computing">Energy consumption</a> (green computing)</li>

<li><a href="Electronic_design_automation" title="Electronic design automation">Electronic design automation</a></li>

<li><a href="Hardware_acceleration" title="Hardware acceleration">Hardware acceleration</a></li>

<li><a href="Processor_(computing)" title="Processor (computing)">Processor</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Computer systems organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

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<li><a href="Computational_complexity" title="Computational complexity">Computational complexity</a></li>

<li><a href="Dependability" title="Dependability">Dependability</a></li>

<li><a href="Embedded_system" title="Embedded system">Embedded system</a></li>

<li><a href="Real-time_computing" title="Real-time computing">Real-time computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyber-physical_system" title="Cyber-physical system">Cyber-physical system</a></li>

<li><a href="Fault_tolerance" title="Fault tolerance">Fault tolerance</a></li>

<li><a href="Wireless_sensor_network" title="Wireless sensor network">Wireless sensor network</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Computer_network" title="Computer network">Networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Network_architecture" title="Network architecture">Network architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="Communication_protocol" title="Communication protocol">Network protocol</a></li>

<li><a href="Networking_hardware" title="Networking hardware">Network components</a></li>

<li><a href="Network_scheduler" title="Network scheduler">Network scheduler</a></li>

<li><a href="Network_performance" title="Network performance">Network performance evaluation</a></li>

<li><a href="Network_service" title="Network service">Network service</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Software organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">Interpreter</a></li>

<li><a href="Middleware" title="Middleware">Middleware</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_machine" title="Virtual machine">Virtual machine</a></li>

<li><a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">Operating system</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_quality" title="Software quality">Software quality</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Programming_language_theory" title="Programming language theory">Software notations</a> and <a href="Programming_tool" title="Programming tool">tools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Programming paradigm</a></li>

<li><a href="Compiler_construction" class="mw-redirect" title="Compiler construction">Compiler</a></li>

<li><a href="Domain-specific_language" title="Domain-specific language">Domain-specific language</a></li>

<li><a href="Modeling_language" title="Modeling language">Modeling language</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_framework" title="Software framework">Software framework</a></li>

<li><a href="Integrated_development_environment" title="Integrated development environment">Integrated development environment</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_configuration_management" title="Software configuration management">Software configuration management</a></li>

<li><a href="Library_(computing)" title="Library (computing)">Software library</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_repository" title="Software repository">Software repository</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Software_development" title="Software development">Software development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Control_flow" title="Control flow">Control variable</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_development_process" title="Software development process">Software development process</a></li>

<li><a href="Requirements_analysis" title="Requirements analysis">Requirements analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_design" title="Software design">Software design</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_construction" title="Software construction">Software construction</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_deployment" title="Software deployment">Software deployment</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_maintenance" title="Software maintenance">Software maintenance</a></li>

<li><a href="Programming_team" title="Programming team">Programming team</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">Open-source model</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Theory_of_computation" title="Theory of computation">Theory of computation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Model_of_computation" title="Model of computation">Model of computation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Stochastic_computing" title="Stochastic computing">Stochastic</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Formal_language" title="Formal language">Formal language</a></li>

<li><a href="Automata_theory" title="Automata theory">Automata theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Computability_theory" title="Computability theory">Computability theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_complexity_theory" title="Computational complexity theory">Computational complexity theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Logic_in_computer_science" title="Logic in computer science">Logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantics_(computer_science)" title="Semantics (computer science)">Semantics</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Algorithm" title="Algorithm">Algorithms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Algorithm_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Algorithm design">Algorithm design</a></li>

<li><a href="Analysis_of_algorithms" title="Analysis of algorithms">Analysis of algorithms</a></li>

<li><a href="Algorithmic_efficiency" title="Algorithmic efficiency">Algorithmic efficiency</a></li>

<li><a href="Randomized_algorithm" title="Randomized algorithm">Randomized algorithm</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_geometry" title="Computational geometry">Computational geometry</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mathematics of <a href="Computing" title="Computing">computing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Discrete_mathematics" title="Discrete mathematics">Discrete mathematics</a></li>

<li><a href="Probability" title="Probability">Probability</a></li>

<li><a href="Statistics" title="Statistics">Statistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_software" title="Mathematical software">Mathematical software</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_theory" title="Information theory">Information theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_analysis" title="Mathematical analysis">Mathematical analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Numerical_analysis" title="Numerical analysis">Numerical analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Theoretical_computer_science" title="Theoretical computer science">Theoretical computer science</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Information_system" title="Information system">Information systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Database" title="Database">Database management system</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">Information storage systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Enterprise_information_system" title="Enterprise information system">Enterprise information system</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_software" title="Social software">Social information systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">Geographic information system</a></li>

<li><a href="Decision_support_system" title="Decision support system">Decision support system</a></li>

<li><a href="Industrial_process_control" title="Industrial process control">Process control system</a></li>

<li><a href="Multimedia_database" title="Multimedia database">Multimedia information system</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_mining" title="Data mining">Data mining</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_library" title="Digital library">Digital library</a></li>

<li><a href="Computing_platform" title="Computing platform">Computing platform</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_marketing" title="Digital marketing">Digital marketing</a></li>

<li><a href="World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_retrieval" title="Information retrieval">Information retrieval</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Computer_security" title="Computer security">Security</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cryptography" title="Cryptography">Cryptography</a></li>

<li><a href="Formal_methods" title="Formal methods">Formal methods</a></li>

<li><a href="Security_hacker" title="Security hacker">Security hacker</a></li>

<li><a href="Security_service_(telecommunication)" title="Security service (telecommunication)">Security services</a></li>

<li><a href="Intrusion_detection_system" title="Intrusion detection system">Intrusion detection system</a></li>

<li><a href="Hardware_security" title="Hardware security">Hardware security</a></li>

<li><a href="Network_security" title="Network security">Network security</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_security" title="Information security">Information security</a></li>

<li><a href="Application_security" title="Application security">Application security</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human-centered_computing">Human–centered computing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Interaction_design" title="Interaction design">Interaction design</a></li>

<li><a href="Augmented_reality" title="Augmented reality">Augmented reality</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_reality" title="Virtual reality">Virtual reality</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_computing" title="Social computing">Social computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Ubiquitous_computing" title="Ubiquitous computing">Ubiquitous computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Visualization_(graphics)" title="Visualization (graphics)">Visualization</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_accessibility" title="Computer accessibility">Accessibility</a></li>

<li><a href="Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a></li>

<li><a href="Mobile_computing" title="Mobile computing">Mobile computing</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Concurrency_(computer_science)" title="Concurrency (computer science)">Concurrency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Concurrent_computing" title="Concurrent computing">Concurrent computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Parallel_computing" title="Parallel computing">Parallel computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Distributed_computing" title="Distributed computing">Distributed computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Multithreading_(computer_architecture)" title="Multithreading (computer architecture)">Multithreading</a></li>

<li><a href="Multiprocessing" title="Multiprocessing">Multiprocessing</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">Natural language processing</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning" title="Knowledge representation and reasoning">Knowledge representation and reasoning</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_vision" title="Computer vision">Computer vision</a></li>

<li><a href="Automated_planning_and_scheduling" title="Automated planning and scheduling">Automated planning and scheduling</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_optimization" title="Mathematical optimization">Search methodology</a></li>

<li><a href="Control_theory" title="Control theory">Control method</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Philosophy of artificial intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Distributed_artificial_intelligence" title="Distributed artificial intelligence">Distributed artificial intelligence</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">Machine learning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Supervised_learning" title="Supervised learning">Supervised learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Unsupervised_learning" title="Unsupervised learning">Unsupervised learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Reinforcement_learning" title="Reinforcement learning">Reinforcement learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Multi-task_learning" title="Multi-task learning">Multi-task learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Cross-validation_(statistics)" title="Cross-validation (statistics)">Cross-validation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Computer_graphics" title="Computer graphics">Graphics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Computer_animation" title="Computer animation">Animation</a></li>

<li><a href="Rendering_(computer_graphics)" title="Rendering (computer graphics)">Rendering</a></li>

<li><a href="Photograph_manipulation" title="Photograph manipulation">Photograph manipulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Graphics_processing_unit" title="Graphics processing unit">Graphics processing unit</a></li>

<li><a href="Image_compression" title="Image compression">Image compression</a></li>

<li><a href="Solid_modeling" title="Solid modeling">Solid modeling</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applied computing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Quantum_computing" title="Quantum computing">Quantum computing</a></li>

<li><a href="E-commerce" title="E-commerce">E-commerce</a></li>

<li><a href="Enterprise_software" title="Enterprise software">Enterprise software</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_mathematics" title="Computational mathematics">Computational mathematics</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_physics" title="Computational physics">Computational physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_chemistry" title="Computational chemistry">Computational chemistry</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_social_science" title="Computational social science">Computational social science</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_engineering" title="Computational engineering">Computational engineering</a></li>

<li>Differentiable computing</li>

<li><a href="Health_informatics" title="Health informatics">Computational healthcare</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_art" title="Digital art">Digital art</a></li>

<li><a href="Electronic_publishing" title="Electronic publishing">Electronic publishing</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyberwarfare</a></li>

<li><a href="Electronic_voting" title="Electronic voting">Electronic voting</a></li>

<li><a href="Video_game" title="Video game">Video games</a></li>

<li><a href="Word_processor" title="Word processor">Word processing</a></li>

<li><a href="Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li>

<li><a href="Educational_technology" title="Educational technology">Educational technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Document_management_system" title="Document management system">Document management</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> Category</li>

<li> <a href="Outline_of_computer_science" title="Outline of computer science">Outline</a></li>

<li> Glossaries</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Types_of_programming_languages107" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Types_of_programming_languages107" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Types of programming languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Level</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Machine_code" title="Machine code">Machine</a></li>

<li><a href="Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">Assembly</a></li>

<li><a href="Compiled_language" title="Compiled language">Compiled</a></li>

<li><a href="Interpreted_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpreted language">Interpreted</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Low-level_programming_language" title="Low-level programming language">Low-level</a></li>

<li><a href="High-level_programming_language" title="High-level programming language">High-level</a></li>

<li><a href="Very_high-level_programming_language" title="Very high-level programming language">Very high-level</a></li>

<li><a href="Esoteric_programming_language" title="Esoteric programming language">Esoteric</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Programming_language_generations" title="Programming language generations">Generation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="First-generation_programming_language" title="First-generation programming language">First</a></li>

<li><a href="Second-generation_programming_language" title="Second-generation programming language">Second</a></li>

<li><a href="Third-generation_programming_language" title="Third-generation programming language">Third</a></li>

<li><a href="Fourth-generation_programming_language" title="Fourth-generation programming language">Fourth</a></li>

<li><a href="Fifth-generation_programming_language" title="Fifth-generation programming language">Fifth</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<ul><li><a href="Comparison_of_programming_languages" title="Comparison of programming languages">Comparison</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_programming_languages" title="Timeline of programming languages">Timeline</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_programming_languages" title="History of programming languages">History</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="ALGOL" title="ALGOL">ALGOL</a>

<ul><li><a href="Simula" title="Simula">Simula</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">Assembly</a></li>

<li><a href="BASIC" title="BASIC">BASIC</a>

<ul><li><a href="Visual_Basic" title="Visual Basic">Visual Basic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Visual_Basic_(classic)" title="Visual Basic (classic)">classic</a></li>

<li><a href="COBOL" title="COBOL">COBOL</a></li>

<li><a href="Erlang_(programming_language)" title="Erlang (programming language)">Erlang</a>

<ul><li><a href="Elixir_(programming_language)" title="Elixir (programming language)">Elixir</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Forth_(programming_language)" title="Forth (programming language)">Forth</a></li>

<li><a href="Fortran" title="Fortran">Fortran</a></li>

<li><a href="Haskell" title="Haskell">Haskell</a></li>

<li><a href="JavaScript" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a></li>

<li><a href="Julia_(programming_language)" title="Julia (programming language)">Julia</a></li>

<li><a href="Kotlin_(programming_language)" title="Kotlin (programming language)">Kotlin</a></li>

<li><a href="MATLAB" title="MATLAB">MATLAB</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="OCaml" title="OCaml">OCaml</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Pascal_(programming_language)" title="Pascal (programming language)">Pascal</a>

<ul><li><a href="Object_Pascal" title="Object Pascal">Object Pascal</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Prolog" title="Prolog">Prolog</a></li>

<li><a href="Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a></li>

<li><a href="Scratch_(programming_language)" title="Scratch (programming language)">Scratch</a></li>

<li><a href="Shell_script" title="Shell script">Shell</a></li>

<li><a href="Smalltalk" title="Smalltalk">Smalltalk</a></li>

<li><a href="Swift_(programming_language)" title="Swift (programming language)">Swift</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> Lists: <a href="List_of_programming_languages" title="List of programming languages">Alphabetical</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_programming_languages_by_type" title="List of programming languages by type">Categorical</a></li>

<li><a href="Generational_list_of_programming_languages" title="Generational list of programming languages">Generational</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-English-based_programming_languages" title="Non-English-based programming languages">Non-English-based</a></li>

<li> Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Types_of_computer_language61" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Types_of_computer_language61" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Types of <a href="Computer_language" title="Computer language">computer language</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Architecture_description_language" title="Architecture description language">Architecture description</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_exchange#Data_exchange_languages" title="Data exchange">Data exchange</a></li>

<li><a href="Hardware_description_language" title="Hardware description language">Hardware description</a></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_representation_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Knowledge representation language">Knowledge representation</a></li>

<li><a href="Markup_language" title="Markup language">Markup</a></li>

<li><a href="Modeling_language" title="Modeling language">Modeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Query_language" title="Query language">Query</a></li>

<li><a href="Shading_language" title="Shading language">Shading</a></li>

<li><a href="Specification_language" title="Specification language">Specification</a></li>

<li><a href="Style_sheet_language" title="Style sheet language">Stylesheet</a></li>

<li><a href="Transformation_language" title="Transformation language">Transformation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Category:Lists of computer languages</li>

<li>Category:Lists of programming languages</li>

<li><a href="List_of_programming_languages_by_type" title="List of programming languages by type">List of programming languages by type</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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